Ideology of Pakistan and initial problems

What is ideology?

Pakistan came into being on the basis of the Two-Nation theory, which means that the Muslims of India are a separate nation. The Two-Nation theory is also called the ideology of Pakistan. To understand it, we first need the meaning of the word ideology.

Ideology

The word comes from two Greek words, ideo (idea) and logos (study or science), so it means the study or science of ideas. The collective thinking of a community, or its set of beliefs and values, is its ideology.

The ideology of a nation reflects the state of its people's minds: their hopes, emotions, aspirations, ideals and objectives, and also their determination to achieve them. An ideology therefore gives a nation a direction and a goal.

1.1Ideology of Pakistan (Two-Nation theory) and its componentsOften examined

The ideology of Pakistan stems from the belief that the Muslims of the sub-continent are a distinct nation. Muslims have a different religion, culture, civilization, history and way of life, and these distinguish them from the other communities of India.

Muslims lived with the other communities of India for more than a thousand years, yet they kept their individuality and did not merge with them. Their separate identity came from their adherence to the principles of Islam, which made them a separate nation. On the grounds of this separate identity, the Muslims demanded a separate homeland.

Four basic components of the ideology of Pakistan

Explaining social justice and equality, Quaid-i-Azam (RA) said: "Islam has taught equality of man, justice, and fair play to everybody. We are the inheritors of those glorious traditions, and we are fully alive to our responsibilities and obligations as framers of the future constitution of Pakistan."

1.2Historical background of the Two-Nation theory

The Two-Nation theory did not appear suddenly. It grew over many centuries as Muslims kept a separate identity in India.

During the British Raj some people began to preach Indian nationalism, the idea that everyone living in India was one nation. Muslim leadership, especially Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, rejected this and replied that Muslims are a separate nation.

Muslim leaders believed that Western democracy (rule of the majority) was not suitable for India because it would bring Hindu domination. So Muslims demanded separate electorates and reserved seats. During Muslim rule, Muslims were a minority but had no fear for their rights because they were the ruling class. Under the British there was now a threat to their political, economic and religious rights. As they were already a separate nation, they struggled for a separate homeland and finally achieved it.

1.3Establishment of British Raj and the War of Independence (1857)

The British came to the sub-continent at the beginning of the seventeenth century for trade. Taking advantage of disunity among Indians, they began to conquer different parts of India. Indians realised the British were exploiting their resources and fought a war against them in 1857, called the War of Independence.

The Indians were defeated, largely because of their disunity and lack of modern weaponry. Muslim rule in India ended and the British Raj began in 1858.

Effects on Muslims

• All communities fought the war, but the British held the Muslims responsible and accused them of instigating others.
• The British took revenge by confiscating Muslim property and closing employment opportunities for them.
• The Hindus came close to the British, pursued modern education and were appointed to key positions.
• The feeling of self-determination emerged strongly among Muslims and they became more conscious of their rights.

1.4Aligarh Movement and Sir Syed Ahmad KhanOften examined

The Aligarh Movement was launched by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817 to 1898) to equip Muslims with modern education and to promote awareness among them. Sir Syed was an employee of the East India Company and was serving as a judge when the War of Independence broke out. He sided with the British and saved the lives of several English people, so the British held him in high regard.

Sir Syed was distressed by the miserable plight of Muslims after 1857. To calm British anger he wrote a short book, "Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind" (Causes of Indian Mutiny). He explained that the British were also responsible because of their unwise policies and their failure to understand the feelings of Indians, and that the war was fought by all Indian communities, not only Muslims.

Sir Syed thought opposing the British was pointless because they were technologically advanced and powerful. He advised Muslims to get modern scientific education, not to oppose the English language, to develop cordial relations with the British, and to keep away from politics because it would lead to confrontation with the British.

Objectives of the Aligarh Movement

1. To remove the tension between the Muslims and the British Government.
2. To motivate Muslims to obtain Western education.
3. To persuade and enable Muslims to get government jobs.
4. To make Muslims loyal to the British Government.

Educational services of Sir Syed

Political services of Sir Syed

• He was the first person to use the word "Nation" for the Muslims of the sub-continent.
• At first he considered Hindus and Muslims one nation. When the Hindus of Banaras started a movement in 1867 to replace Urdu with Hindi as the official language, he concluded that Muslims are a separate nation (the Urdu-Hindi controversy changed his view).
• He advised Muslims not to join the Indian National Congress, predicting it would become a Hindu-dominated party.
• He demanded Muslim representation in the Viceroy's Imperial Council, and demanded separate electorates and a quota in government jobs.

Impact of the Aligarh Movement

• Encouraged Muslims to get modern education.
• Bridged the gap between the government and the Muslims; many MAO alumni got key government posts.
• Aligarh students played a pivotal role in the freedom movement.
• Provided political leadership: Liaquat Ali Khan, Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar and Maulana Shaukat Ali were MAO alumni.
• Secured political rights: Sir Syed's demands of separate electorates and a job quota were finally accepted.
• Sir Syed's followers founded the All India Muslim League, which achieved a separate homeland.

1.5Establishment of the All-India Muslim League (1906)Often examined

Sir Syed had advised Muslims to stay out of politics, but the political situation at the beginning of the twentieth century compelled them to form their own party. The All India Muslim League (AIML) was formed during the annual session of the Muhammadan Educational Conference at Dacca on 30 December 1906. Sir Agha Khan was appointed its president.

Causes (background) of its formation

Partition of Bengal: why Lord Curzon did it

Bengal was so large and its infrastructure so poor that it was virtually impossible for the Governor to visit the entire province during his tenure. So in 1905 Lord Curzon divided it into two provinces, East Bengal and West Bengal, purely on administrative grounds.

Demands of the Simla Deputation (1 October 1906)

• Separate electorates for Muslims.
• Reserved quota for Muslims in government jobs.
• Representation in the Imperial Legislative Council.
• Representation in the Governor General's Executive Council.

Objectives of the AIML at its formation (1906)

1. To promote feelings of loyalty among Indian Muslims towards the British Government.
2. To protect and advance the political rights and interests of Muslims and to present their needs and aspirations to the Government.
3. To prevent among Indian Muslims the rise of any feeling of hostility towards other communities.

Change in objectives (March 1913)

The League became unhappy with the government because of these steps:

• Annulment of the partition of Bengal in 1911.
• In 1912 the government demolished a part of the Kanpur Mosque to make way for a road.
• Government's reluctance to give M.A.O. College the status of a university.
• Britain supported Italy in its war against the Ottoman Empire.

On the suggestion of Quaid-i-Azam (RA), the League changed its objectives in March 1913. Instead of unconditional cooperation with the government, it decided to work for self-government and to cooperate with other communities of India for this. This was a turning point in the League's history: it now focused on Hindu-Muslim unity.

Lucknow Pact (1916)

Quaid-i-Azam (RA), then a member of both Congress and the League, brought the two parties together. Under the Lucknow Pact, Congress accepted the Muslim demands of separate electorates and one-third (1/3) representation in the Central Assembly. For these efforts Quaid-i-Azam was called the "Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity".

Achievements of the AIML

• Won separate electorates and 1/3 representation in the central assembly for Muslims.
• Tried to build harmony with other communities; when this failed, it concluded that Muslim rights could only be safe in a separate homeland.
• Demanded a separate homeland in March 1940 (Lahore Resolution) and, under Quaid-i-Azam (RA), achieved Pakistan.

1.6Khilafat Movement (1918 to 1923)Often examined

Background

During World War I (1914 to 1918) the Ottoman Empire (Turkey, now Türkiye) sided with Germany against Britain and its allies. Indian Muslims respected the Ottoman Empire as the seat of the Caliph of Muslims, but they were British subjects and many served in the British army. The British announced that their war was not against the Caliph but against Germany, so Muslims supported them. At the end of the war the British took many territories from Turkey, and it was feared that the Allies would abolish the Caliphate. Muslims considered the Caliphate a religious institution, so they launched the Khilafat Movement in support of Turkey.

Objectives

1. The institution of Khilafat shall not be abolished.
2. All sacred places of Muslims (Makkah, Madina and others) should remain under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
3. Turkey should not be deprived of its territory.

Main events

Hijrat Movement

Some Muslim scholars issued a decree that Muslims should migrate to a nearby Muslim country because Islam could not be practised freely under British rule. Thousands sold their properties and set out for Afghanistan. The Afghan government first welcomed them, but because of limited resources and economic challenges it closed its borders. The migrants returned with great losses.

Impact of the Khilafat Movement

1.7Escalation of communal conflict: Delhi Proposals, Nehru Report and Fourteen Points

After the failure of the Khilafat Movement, communal violence between Hindus and Muslims intensified. Some Congress leaders told Quaid-i-Azam (RA) that separate electorates were a major cause of the conflict and that Hindu-Muslim unity could be achieved if Muslims gave them up.

1.8Allahabad Address (1930)

Disappointed with Congress and other parties, Muslim leaders began to think of a separate Muslim state. Allama Iqbal presided over the annual session of the Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930 and spoke of a separate homeland.

Iqbal said: "India is a continent of human groups belonging to different races, speaking different languages, and professing different religions. Personally, I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sindh and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India."

1.9Round Table Conferences (1930 to 1932)

To solve communal problems and discuss constitutional reform, the British Government held three Round Table Conferences in London from 1930 to 1932. Leaders of all communities attended, but the conferences failed and the constitutional deadlock continued.

• Gandhi attended the second conference; his stubborn and uncompromising attitude was the major cause of its failure.
• Quaid-i-Azam (RA) tried for Hindu-Muslim unity and agreement on reforms, but failed because other leaders lacked interest.

1.10Congress ministries (1937 to 1939)Often examined

In 1937 the British held provincial elections in eleven provinces. The manifestos of Congress and the League were nearly the same, and coalition governments were expected. Congress won heavily in Hindu-majority provinces. The League did poorly, winning only 104 of 489 Muslim seats, because it was not well organised and did not contest on the issue of Pakistan.

Congress ruled 8 of 11 provinces for about two and a half years. It refused coalitions with the League and demanded that League members first resign from their party and join Congress.

Steps of Congress ministries that annoyed Muslims

• Declared the controversial Bande Mataram as the national anthem.
• Hoisted Congress flags on public places.
• Made Hindi the medium of instruction in educational institutions.
• Made it compulsory in some provinces for children to bow before Gandhi's portrait.
• Discriminated against Muslims in government jobs and tried to curb their religious freedom.

When the Congress ministries resigned in 1939, Muslims were relieved and Quaid-i-Azam (RA) celebrated 22 December 1939 as the "Day of Deliverance". He said Congress rule was "Hindu Raj in disguise" and meant "the complete disfranchisement and servitude of Muslims under a Hindu majority".

1.11Lahore Resolution (1940)Often examined

Background

The injustices of the Congress ministries convinced Muslims that their political, religious and socio-economic rights were not safe in a united India. A few months after the ministries resigned, Muslims demanded a separate homeland at the 27th annual session of the AIML at Minto Park (now Iqbal Park), Lahore, from 22 to 24 March 1940. A.K. Fazl-ul-Haq, the Prime Minister of Bengal, presented the resolution.

It was a landmark: for the first time a demand for a separate homeland was made from the platform of the Muslim League.

Text (main part)

"No constitutional plan would be workable in this country or acceptable to the Muslims unless it is designed on the following basic principle, namely that geographically contiguous units are demarcated into regions which should be so constituted, with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary, that the areas in which the Muslims are numerically in a majority as in the North-Western and Eastern Zones of India should be grouped to constitute 'Independent States' in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign." (Foundations of Pakistan by Syed Sharifuddin Pirzada)

Importance

• Before it, Muslims sought their rights within a united India; after it, their struggle turned towards a separate homeland.
• It increased the credibility and popularity of the Muslim League, which won a tremendous victory in the 1945-46 elections.
• The prestige of Quaid-i-Azam (RA) increased greatly; he became the undisputed leader of Indian Muslims.
• It gave Muslims a clear goal and united them behind one demand.
• Within seven years of it, Pakistan came into being (14 August 1947).

1.12Cripps Mission, Gandhi-Jinnah talks and Simla Conference (1942 to 1945)

Cripps Mission Plan (1942)

In the early years of World War II the Allies were being defeated everywhere, and Britain needed Indian cooperation because much of its army was Indian. The British Prime Minister sent cabinet minister Sir Stafford Cripps, who presented his plan on 30 March 1942.

• For the first time Britain accepted India's right to be a dominion.
• For the first time Britain took the question of Pakistan seriously: Muslim-majority provinces got the right to secede from the rest of India.

Gandhi-Jinnah talks (September 1944)

The British and Congress, who had mocked the Pakistan demand in 1940 as impractical and "a dream of a poet", now took it seriously. After his release Gandhi met Quaid-i-Azam (RA) at Quaid's residence in September 1944. The talks failed: Gandhi wanted the League first to help Congress expel the British and to consider partition afterwards; Quaid demanded that Congress first accept the partition of India.

Simla Conference (June 1945)

In May 1945, near the end of World War II, the Congress leaders jailed since 1942 were released. Viceroy Lord Wavell announced that, except for the Commander-in-Chief, his Executive Council would be all Indian, and called an all-parties conference at Simla in June 1945.

Why it failed: Quaid-i-Azam claimed that the Muslim League was the only representative of Muslims and had the sole right to nominate the Muslim members of the Executive Council. Congress did not accept this. The conference failed and the Viceroy announced fresh elections.

1.13Elections of 1945-46

After the Simla Conference failed, elections were held for the central and provincial legislatures. The League contested on the single issue of Pakistan.

The results clearly showed that the Muslims of India wanted Pakistan, and proved that the League was their sole representative party.

1.14Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) and the interim governmentOften examined

The British Prime Minister sent three cabinet members, Sir Pethick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander, to end the constitutional deadlock. They arrived on 24 March 1946. When the parties could not agree, the Mission issued its own plan on 16 May 1946.

Main recommendations

• India would be a federation; the centre would deal only with Foreign Affairs, Defence and Communications.
• Provinces would be divided into three groups: Group A six Hindu-majority provinces; Group B three Muslim-majority provinces (Punjab, Sindh, NWFP); Group C Bengal and Assam.
• Maximum autonomy for provinces and groups.
• Provinces could leave the Indian Union after ten years.
• An interim government at the centre until the constitution was framed and implemented.

Reaction of the Muslim League

The League accepted the plan because it gave maximum provincial autonomy and Muslim-majority provinces could leave the Union after ten years, so a greater Pakistan could be formed. Under Congress pressure the government hesitated to implement the whole plan. Angered by the delays and Congress non-cooperation, Quaid-i-Azam (RA) finally rejected it.

Interim government and Direct Action Day

Joining the interim government was the right decision: Congress realised that the two parties could not work together and India could not be kept united.

1.15Third June Plan and the Indian Independence Act (1947)Often examined

After World War II Hindu-Muslim differences grew so much that unity was impossible. The Calcutta riots of August 1946 convinced Congress and Britain that partition was inevitable.

Main points of the Indian Independence Act 1947

• Two independent dominions, India and Pakistan, would be created from 15 August 1947.
• Muslim-majority areas would go to Pakistan; Punjab and Bengal would be divided by a Boundary Commission.
• Each dominion would have its own Governor General and Constituent Assembly, which would frame its constitution and act as its legislature.
• Until new constitutions were made, the Government of India Act 1935 (with changes) would be the interim constitution.
• British authority over India and over the princely states would end; the states could join either dominion.

1.16Radcliffe Award and its injusticesOften examined

Quaid-i-Azam (RA) wanted Bengal and Punjab not to be divided, but the government decided to give Pakistan only their Muslim-majority areas. A Boundary Commission was set up. Quaid proposed that the boundary be drawn under the United Nations or the British Privy Council (the highest court of appeal in Britain), but this was refused and Sir Cyril Radcliffe was made chairman.

Radcliffe, a lawyer, had never visited India and did not know its political and geographical conditions. He drew a boundary thousands of kilometres long in just 38 days. The award was announced on 17 August 1947, after independence.

Injustices

• Radcliffe first gave the Muslim-majority tehsils of Ferozepur and Zira to Pakistan, but after Mountbatten intervened he gave them to India. Pakistan lost control over canal headworks.
• In the Muslim-majority district of Gurdaspur, three tehsils (Pathankot, Batala and Gurdaspur) were given to India just to give it a land route to Kashmir.
• Calcutta, capital of Bengal and the biggest industrial, commercial and educational centre, was given to India, ignoring the Muslim claim.

Impact

• Most initial problems of Pakistan came from this award.
• Giving Pathankot to India created the Kashmir problem.
• Millions of people were displaced and about one million were killed at partition; an earlier announcement could have saved many lives.
• Pakistan lost control of headworks; India stopped Pakistan's water in 1948, damaging standing crops.

1.17Early problems of Pakistan and how they were tackledOften examined

Pakistan was created despite strong opposition from Congress and the British, who both wanted a united India. They were unhappy with the new state and created hurdles for it. Most early problems were created by the British government or the Congress-led government of India.

1.18Princely states and the Kashmir issueOften examined

Princely states

At partition India had about 562 princely states. They ran their internal affairs, but the British ran their external affairs; they could not make agreements with each other or have foreign relations. Their rulers were loyal to the British. The British advised them to join Pakistan or India keeping in mind the wishes of their people and geographical contiguity. Most did so, but three states, Junagarh, Hyderabad and Kashmir, did not decide in time.

Kashmir problem: background

• A Muslim-majority state famous for its natural beauty, with a vast area of 84,471 (square miles), contiguous to Pakistan, China and Afghanistan.
• Culturally, religiously and geographically very close to Pakistan; many of Pakistan's rivers flow from Kashmir.
• 1941 census: population 4 million, about 77% Muslim.
• In 1846 the British sold Kashmir to the Dogra Raja Gulab Singh; his successors were cruel to Muslims.

War of 1948

• In 1947 Kashmiris began a mass movement to join Pakistan and resisted the Dogra Raja's brutality.
• Pashtun tribesmen from Pakistan went to help in their individual capacity; the Tribal Lashkar and Kashmiris defeated the Dogra army.
• India sent its army and claimed the Raja had signed the Instrument of Accession on 27 October 1947. Kashmiris rejected this unilateral decision.
• On 30 October 1947 the Gilgit Scouts expelled the Raja's governor from Gilgit-Baltistan and asked Pakistan to take over its administration.
• Pakistan sent troops; after months of fighting part of Kashmir was liberated, now called Azad Kashmir.

UN resolution

India went to the United Nations, which called for a ceasefire and passed a resolution to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir. Knowing Kashmiris would not choose India, India refused to hold it and occupied the state. The issue is still unresolved.

Abolition of Article 370 (5 August 2019)

Under Article 370 of the Indian constitution, Kashmir had special status, its own flag and constitution and considerable autonomy. On 5 August 2019 the BJP government revoked this status. It is issuing domicile certificates to Hindus to turn Muslims into a minority. Kashmiris face human rights abuses, lockdowns and threats to their culture and religion, but India has failed to suppress their desire for self-determination.

Pakistan's support for the Kashmir cause

• Pakistan and India fought three major wars over Kashmir: 1948, 1965 and Kargil (1999).
• Pakistanis observe 5 February as Kashmir Solidarity Day.
• Pakistan calls Kashmir its "jugular vein" and raises the issue at every international forum.
• Pakistan demands a solution according to the UN resolutions and the right of self-determination for Kashmiris.

Effect on Pakistan-India relations

• It is the main cause of wars and permanent tension between the two countries.
• Both spend heavily on defence instead of development; it led to an arms and nuclear race.
• Trade, travel and cooperation (for example in SAARC) remain limited.
• Water disputes are linked to it because Pakistan's rivers flow from Kashmir.

Timeline and key personalities of the Pakistan Movement

Key terms

Ideology

The study or science of ideas (Greek ideo + logos); the collective thinking, beliefs and values of a community.

Two-Nation theory

The belief that the Muslims of the sub-continent are a separate nation because of their different religion, culture, civilization, history and way of life; the ideology of Pakistan.

Separate electorate

A system in which Muslims vote only for Muslim candidates on seats reserved for them.

Joint electorate

A system in which all communities vote together for the same candidates.

British Raj

The period of British rule over India from 1858 to 1947.

Aligarh Movement

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan's movement to give Muslims modern education and awareness after 1857.

Simla Deputation

35 Muslim leaders led by Sir Agha Khan who met Viceroy Lord Minto at Simla on 1 October 1906.

Khilafat

Islamic system of government led by a caliph.

Khilafat Movement

Indian Muslims' movement (1918 to 1923) to save the Ottoman Caliphate and Turkey's territory.

Hijrat Movement

The migration of thousands of Indian Muslims to Afghanistan (1920) after a decree that Islam could not be freely practised under British rule.

Day of Deliverance

22 December 1939, celebrated by Muslims when the Congress ministries resigned.

Direct Action Day

16 August 1946, observed by the Muslim League against the government and Congress.

Dominion

A self-governing country within the British Commonwealth.

Award

A decision of an arbitrator.

Radcliffe Award

The demarcation of the boundaries of Punjab and Bengal by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, announced on 17 August 1947.

Princely states

Semi-autonomous regions under the British Raj ruled by local Rajas or Nawabs; about 562 at partition.

Plebiscite

A direct vote of the people of an area to decide a question, such as which country to join.

Instrument of Accession

The document by which a ruler of a princely state joined a dominion; India claims Hari Singh signed one on 27 October 1947.

Field Marshal

A senior military rank equivalent to a five-star general.

Governor General

The highest British official in India; after 1947 the head of state of each dominion.

Simla

The summer capital of British India.

Ottoman Empire

Muslim empire centred in Turkey, lasting from the 13th to the early 20th century.

Article 370

Article of the Indian constitution that gave Kashmir special status; revoked on 5 August 2019.

FBISE 2026 questions

Questions from the FBISE HSSC-II 2026 (1st Annual) papers that belong to this unit, answered the way an examiner expects.

Exam focus

1. What is meant by the Two-Nation theory? Justify that it became the basis of Pakistan. (long)
   Core idea of the unit; asked as a short question in the book and as a long question; three 2026 MCQs tested it.
   Go to answer
2. Components of the ideology of Pakistan (Islam, democracy, social justice, fundamental rights). (short)
   2026 Sets B, D and old syllabus all asked about the ideology (democracy within Islam, sovereignty of Allah, Islamic welfare state).
   Go to answer
3. Educational and political services of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. (long)
   Book long question; 2026 MCQs asked about the 1867 Urdu-Hindi controversy, modern education and the word Nation.
   Go to answer
4. Causes of the establishment of the All India Muslim League. (long)
   Book long question; the 1906 and 1913 objectives were asked in the 2026 old-syllabus paper.
   Go to answer
5. Background and importance of the Lahore Resolution. (long)
   The single most important event of the freedom movement; book long question.
   Go to answer
6. Cabinet Mission Plan: recommendations and why the League accepted it. (short)
   Book short question and 2026 old-syllabus Q.2 (i).
   Go to answer
7. Initial problems of Pakistan and how they were overcome. (long)
   Book long question; five 2026 MCQs (refugees, trained officers, relief fund, interim constitution, leadership) came from this topic.
   Go to answer
8. Indian Independence Act 1947. (short)
   Asked in the 2026 old-syllabus paper Q.2 (viii).
   Go to answer
9. Kashmir issue and its effect on Pakistan-India relations. (short)
   Book short question; also a likely long question.
   Go to answer
10. Positive and negative impacts of the Khilafat Movement. (short)
    Book short question with a clear two-part answer.
    Go to answer