Foreign policy of Pakistan

The Kashmir conflict is the core issue: it has caused four wars (1947-48, 1965, 1971, 1999) and still blocks normal relations and SAARC. The Indus Water Treaty (1960) is an agreement, not the main dispute, and Siachen is a smaller part of the Kashmir problem.

After the 9/11 attacks in 2001, Pakistan under President Pervez Musharraf joined the US War on Terror as a front-line ally, allowing the use of air bases and sharing intelligence.

SEATO (1954) and CENTO (1955) were US-led military alliances of the Cold War, joined by Pakistan to oppose Soviet dominance and gain military and financial support.

SAARC has eight members: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area) aims to reduce trade barriers and increase intra-regional trade among SAARC countries.

SAARC was founded in December 1985 (at the Dhaka summit).

Unmanned combat aerial vehicles (armed drones) can fly long missions without risk to a pilot and strike precisely. The book mentions US drone strikes in Pakistan's tribal areas and Pakistan-Turkiye cooperation in UAVs.

9/11 is written in the American month/day style: the 9th month (September), 11th day, 2001.

UN Security Council Resolution 47 (1948) called for a plebiscite so that Kashmiris could decide whether to join India or Pakistan. A plebiscite is a kind of referendum, but plebiscite is the term used in the UN resolutions and the book.

Geography is the first and most permanent determinant of foreign policy; the book puts it first for Pakistan (junction of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East).

The government (executive) formulates foreign policy, so option C is tempting, but the question asks for the factor that shapes the policy, and geography is the answer expected from the book's determinants.

Foreign policy is a government's strategy for dealing with other countries and international organizations in order to protect its national interests. Its primary purpose is to protect the nation's national interest.

Kegley and Wittkopf define it as "the strategy or approach chosen by the national government to achieve its goals in its relations with external entities." Michael H. Hunt calls it the actions and strategies a nation takes to safeguard its national interest in the international arena.

It is formulated by the executive branch with inputs from departments and agencies, and is shaped by ideology, geography, history, security and economic factors.

No state can live in isolation, and foreign policy is its link with the outside world. Its importance lies in the following:

• Security and sovereignty: it protects the independence and territorial integrity of the state through alliances and diplomacy.
• Economic development: it brings trade, foreign investment and aid (for example CPEC with China, GSP+ with the EU).
• International support: it wins support in forums like the UN and OIC on national issues such as Kashmir.
• Image and peace: it builds a positive image and helps solve common problems such as terrorism and climate change.

1. Geography: location at the junction of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East, near Afghanistan, Iran and the Arabian Sea.
2. Security concerns: hostile relations with India over Kashmir, terrorism, and Pakistan's nuclear capability.
3. Economic factors: the need for aid, investment and trade, for example CPEC.
4. Islamic ideology: close ties with Muslim countries, OIC membership and support for Palestine.
5. Influence of major powers: relations with the USA (military aid, War on Terror) and China (CPEC investment).

Other determinants are history, domestic politics, regional dynamics, SAARC and ECO membership, climate change, counter-terrorism and technological cooperation.

Kashmir is the core dispute between Pakistan and India. It has caused four wars (1947-48, 1965, 1971, 1999) and constant tension on the Line of Control. Resolving it is important because:

• Kashmiris would get their right of self-determination through the plebiscite promised in UNSC Resolution 47 (1948), and human rights abuses would end.
• The main cause of war between two nuclear states would be removed, bringing peace to South Asia.
• Money spent on defence could be used for education, health and poverty reduction, and SAARC, SAFTA and trade could be revived.

SAARC stands for South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation.

It is the organization of South Asian nations set up to promote economic and regional integration. It was founded in December 1985 and has eight members: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

Pakistan is a founding member and promotes agreements such as SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area), the SAARC Food Security Reserve and the SAARC Payment Council, although India-Pakistan tensions have often stalled its summits.

After 9/11 (2001) Pakistan became a front-line ally of the US in the War on Terror. The effects were:

• Economic: about $10 billion US aid since 2001 stabilized the economy for a time, but created dependence, debt and inflation; instability discouraged foreign investment.
• Security: militant groups retaliated, causing a surge in terrorism; resources were diverted from development to security.
• Social: military operations in FATA displaced people; drone strikes killed civilians and raised anti-American sentiment and sovereignty concerns.
• Political: a trust deficit with the US over claims of a double game.

The Central Asian States (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) are landlocked and resource-rich. Pakistan's location is vital to them because:

• Through Afghanistan, Pakistan offers the shortest trade route to the Arabian Sea at Gwadar and Karachi, and CPEC connects them to world markets.
• Pakistan is a large market and transit country for their energy: CASA-1000 electricity and the TAPI gas pipeline.
• Shared platforms (ECO, SCO) and shared concern for a stable Afghanistan make Pakistan a partner in regional security.

Introduction

Foreign policy is a state's strategy for dealing with other countries and organizations to protect its national interests. Several internal and external factors, called determinants, shape Pakistan's foreign policy. The main ones are described below.

1. Geography

Pakistan lies at the junction of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. Its nearness to Afghanistan, Iran and the Arabian Sea affects its strategic outlook and requires careful management of regional relations and security.

2. Security concerns

Regional instability and the threat of terrorism make security essential. Relations with India, marked by wars and the Kashmir issue, Pakistan's role in the global war on terror and its nuclear capability are critical factors.

3. Economic factors

Pakistan needs foreign aid, investment and trade. CPEC shows the importance of economic partnerships, and ties with major powers are essential for financial stability.

4. Islamic ideology

Pakistan keeps solid ties with Muslim countries, is a vital member of the OIC and supports Islamic causes such as Palestine and the rights of Muslims worldwide.

5. Historical context and domestic politics

Past conflicts with India and Afghanistan keep the focus on territorial integrity. Internal politics, governance, public opinion and economic conditions also shape decisions.

6. Regional dynamics

Changing relations with Iran and the Gulf States and growing ties with Russia and Turkiye require Pakistan to adapt its strategy for regional cooperation.

7. Influence of major powers

The USA (military aid, War on Terror) and China (investment through CPEC) strongly influence Pakistan's strategic and monetary policies.

8. Regional alliances and organizations

Membership of SAARC and ECO helps shape regional policy through economic cooperation, security collaboration and political dialogue.

9. Environment, counter-terrorism and technology

Climate change forces Pakistan to seek international aid for sustainable development and disaster management. Its commitment to counter-terrorism and anti money laundering standards affects aid agreements. Cooperation in space technology, nuclear energy and IT is vital for modernization.

Conclusion

Pakistan's foreign policy is a complex interplay of geography, security, economy, ideology, history, domestic politics and regional dynamics, which together guide its international relations and strategic decisions.

Background of the conflict

At independence in 1947 the princely states, including Kashmir, could join India or Pakistan. Kashmir had a Muslim majority, but its Hindu Maharaja acceded to India against the will of the people. War followed in 1947-48 and India took the issue to the UN.

UN resolutions and Pakistan's stand

UN Security Council Resolution 47 (1948) called for a ceasefire and a plebiscite so that Kashmiris could decide their future. The plebiscite was never held. Pakistan holds that India's control denies Kashmiris their right to choose their political destiny, and it supports their legitimate aspirations through diplomacy and dialogue.

Consequences of the conflict

• Four wars (1947-48, 1965, 1971 and 1999) and ongoing skirmishes along the Line of Control.
• Human rights violations in Indian-occupied Kashmir; in 2019 India revoked Articles 370 and 35A.
• SAARC summits and regional cooperation have stalled because of India-Pakistan tension.
• Both countries spend heavily on defence, and the risk of nuclear conflict remains.

Expected outcomes if solved (best case for Kashmiris)

1. Self-determination: Kashmiris decide their future in a free and fair plebiscite under the UN, as promised.
2. Human rights and dignity: an end to killings, curfews and communication blackouts; freedom of religion, movement and expression; return of displaced people.
3. Economic development: growth of tourism, handicrafts, fruit farming and hydropower; jobs and investment for Kashmiri youth.
4. Peace between Pakistan and India: the main cause of wars removed; trust built for solving Siachen, Sir Creek and water issues.
5. Regional cooperation: revival of SAARC summits, SAFTA trade and people-to-people contact across South Asia.
6. Peace dividend: lower defence spending and nuclear risk; money moved to education, health and poverty reduction.
7. Credibility of the UN: implementation of its resolutions would strengthen international law.

Conclusion

Kashmir is the most significant issue between India and Pakistan. A just solution according to UN resolutions and the wishes of Kashmiris would bring freedom to Kashmir and lasting peace and prosperity to the whole of South Asia.

Introduction

Before 9/11 Pak-US relations moved between close alliance and cold disengagement. They were close when US strategic needs required Pakistan and weak when US concern over Pakistan's nuclear programme took priority.

1. Cold War alliances (1950s)

To oppose Soviet dominance, Pakistan joined the US through SEATO (1954) and CENTO (1955) and received significant financial and military support. The US saw Pakistan as an essential ally in South Asia.

2. Disappointment in the wars of 1965 and 1971

Pakistan expected help from its ally against India, but the US stopped arms supplies to both sides in 1965 and did not help Pakistan in 1971. This created distrust and pushed Pakistan towards China and a more independent policy.

3. Soviet-Afghan War (1979 to 1989)

Relations became close again. Pakistan was instrumental in aiding the Afghan Mujahideen with substantial US financial and military support.

4. Nuclear programme and sanctions

The US was always concerned about atomic proliferation. The disclosure of Pakistan's nuclear programme in the late 1970s led to a series of sanctions, culminating in the Pressler Amendment (1985), which shut off US aid (applied in 1990 once the Soviet army had left Afghanistan).

5. Disengagement in the 1990s

After the Cold War ended, the US lost interest in the region. The 1990s saw scant cooperation, cut-off of aid and military supplies, and Pakistan felt abandoned.

6. Nuclear tests of 1998

After India's tests, Pakistan conducted nuclear tests in 1998. The US imposed further sanctions and relations were strained further; the military takeover of 1999 added to the coldness.

Conclusion

Pre-9/11 relations were affected because they depended on changing US strategic interests (Cold War and Afghan war) and on US non-proliferation policy, while Pakistan's main concern was security against India. The relationship was therefore transactional, not stable.

Introduction

Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates share a robust, multifaceted relationship rooted in economic ties, cultural exchange and strategic collaboration, strengthened by a common religion and brotherly feelings.

1. Trade

Bilateral trade was $5.6 billion in 2023-2024. The UAE is Pakistan's largest trading partner in the MENA region (Middle East and North Africa).

2. Investment

The UAE invests heavily in Pakistan's oil refineries and infrastructure, which helps energy security and development.

3. Pakistani community and remittances

Over 1.6 million Pakistanis live in the UAE. They contribute to the UAE's economy, send remittances home and deepen people-to-people ties.

4. Financial aid

The UAE has given $6.2 billion in financial aid, helping Pakistan in balance of payments crises.

5. Political support

The UAE supports Pakistan in international forums, which shows the strength of their political alliance. Both are members of the OIC.

6. Future cooperation

Cooperation in sustainable energy, education and infrastructure promises to enhance the partnership, with important implications for regional connectivity and economic integration, and for Pakistan's SDGs.

Conclusion

Pak-UAE relations are a model of brotherly cooperation: trade, investment, jobs for Pakistanis and financial help on one side, and skilled manpower and political friendship on the other.

Introduction

SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) was founded in December 1985 to promote economic and regional integration. Its eight members are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Pakistan is a founding member.

1. Trade and markets

Through SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area), trade barriers are reduced and intra-regional trade increased. Neighbouring markets are close, so transport costs are low and Pakistani goods can compete.

2. Food security and finance

The SAARC Food Security Reserve helps members in food shortages, and the SAARC Payment Council makes transactions more efficient.

3. Peace and security

A stable Afghanistan stops the spillover of terrorism and refugees into Pakistan. SAARC provides a platform for dialogue, including Track II diplomacy between India and Pakistan, and peace allows resources to go to development.

4. Better regional relations

Improving ties with Bangladesh after the 1971 war, and cordial links with Sri Lanka (trade, defence), Nepal and the Maldives (education), widen Pakistan's diplomatic and economic options.

5. Humanitarian and economic cooperation with Afghanistan

Pakistan gives aid to Afghanistan and, through it, can reach Central Asia for trade and energy (CASA-1000, TAPI).

6. Social and cultural exchange

SAARC cultural, educational and social programmes promote people-to-people contact, tourism and cooperation in health, education and disaster management.

Limitations

India-Pakistan tensions, especially over Kashmir, have stalled SAARC summits, and both countries prefer bilateral engagement. So SAARC's potential for Pakistan's development is not yet fully used.

Conclusion

SAARC countries are important for Pakistan's trade, security and regional integration. If disputes are resolved, SAARC can become a strong engine of Pakistan's development.

CPEC is the flagship project of China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and the cornerstone of Pakistan-China relations. Valued at over $62 billion, it is a series of infrastructure, energy and economic projects to improve connectivity and growth.

• Energy projects: Sahiwal and Hub coal power plants, Karot Hydropower Plant.
• Gwadar Port: deep-sea port with a Free Zone and International Airport.
• Transport: Karachi-Lahore Motorway, Hazara Motorway, ML-1 railway.
• Special Economic Zones: Rashakai and Dhabeji.

Pakistan-China relations are called an "all-weather strategic partnership" because they have stayed friendly under every government and in every situation, built on mutual trust, economic collaboration and shared strategic interests.

• Connectivity: the Karakoram Highway through the Khunjerab Pass and CPEC.
• Defence: the jointly built JF-17 Thunder fighter jet, naval vessels and air defence systems.
• Nuclear energy and health: Chashma C-1 to C-4 and K-2/K-3 reactors; vaccines and equipment during COVID-19.

Pakistan-UK relations are rooted in the colonial past; after 1947 Pakistan joined the Commonwealth of Nations.

• Trade: the UK is one of Pakistan's largest trading partners; trade was about £2.9 billion in 2021.
• Aid: DFID, now FCDO, has been one of Pakistan's largest donors for education, health and poverty alleviation.
• Diaspora and education: over 1.6 million people of Pakistani origin live in the UK; 34,690 Pakistani students studied there in 2022-2023.
• Diplomacy: the Enhanced Strategic Dialogue (2011); cricket and culture add warmth.

Current status: relations have improved greatly in the last ten years. Russia helped build Pakistan Steel Mills (foundation stone 1973, production from 1984). Pakistan buys Russian military equipment and holds joint exercises. Both share concern for a stable Afghanistan. The North-South Gas Pipeline is delayed by financial problems and the Russia-Ukraine conflict.

Prospects: Russia can reach the Arabian Sea through Gwadar and benefit from CPEC. During the Russian Deputy Prime Minister's visit (18 to 19 September 2024), LNG deals and a new steel mill were discussed. Cooperation in technology, energy and education can help Pakistan's SDGs.

Track II diplomacy is informal dialogue between individuals and groups (such as retired officials, scholars, journalists and business people) involved in a conflict, outside official government talks (Track I).

It builds trust, tests new ideas and keeps communication open when official talks are stalled. Under the SAARC umbrella it has been used between India and Pakistan to help resolve conflicts, alongside SAARC cultural, educational and social programmes that promote people-to-people contact.

Pakistan and Saudi Arabia share a deep religious, economic and strategic relationship. Saudi Arabia is the custodian of Islam's two holiest sites, which creates a spiritual bond.

Economic cooperation includes the $14 billion oil refinery in Gwadar and financial aid packages. Military collaboration is strong: Pakistan supports Saudi-led coalitions and joint defence efforts. Challenges include Saudi engagement with India and Pakistan's alignment with China. Future cooperation lies in economic partnerships, joint defence and shared SDG goals.

The SDGs are 17 UN goals to end poverty, protect the environment and ensure peace and prosperity by 2030. In 2016 Pakistan was one of the first countries to adopt them in its national agenda.

• Policies aligned with education, health care, clean water and gender equality.
• A national SDG framework and special SDG units in government departments to track progress.
• The Ehsaas programme for low-income families (poverty reduction, health).
• Work on renewable energy, clean drinking water and girls' education.

Pakistan and Turkiye share a robust partnership of strategic, economic and cultural cooperation based on mutual respect and brotherhood.

• Defence (cornerstone): joint military exercises, defence production agreements, UAVs and shipbuilding projects.
• Economy: MOUs in trade, technology and infrastructure for a strategic economic partnership.
• Education and culture: student programmes and research collaborations.
• Shared goals: common geostrategic interests and joint efforts towards the SDGs, with ongoing urban development and sustainable growth projects.

• Aid and dependency: about $10 billion in US aid since 2001 temporarily stabilized the economy but created dependence; corruption and poor administration reduced its impact.
• Terrorism: militant retaliation caused a surge in terrorism and diverted resources from development, worsening poverty and education gaps.
• Displacement: military operations in FATA displaced many people (FATA merged with Khyber Pakhtunkhwa by the 25th Amendment, 2018).
• Economy: instability discouraged foreign investment; dependence on aid increased debt and inflation.

Introduction

Pakistan-China relations are called an "all-weather strategic partnership" based on mutual trust, economic collaboration and shared strategic interests. Many joint projects have transformed the relationship.

1. CPEC

The flagship project of China's BRI, valued at over $62 billion: energy projects (Sahiwal, Hub, Karot), Gwadar Port with a Free Zone and airport, motorways (Karachi-Lahore, Hazara), the ML-1 railway, and SEZs at Rashakai and Dhabeji.

2. Karakoram Highway

Links the two countries through the Khunjerab Pass; expanded and upgraded under CPEC for trade and people-to-people contact.

3. Energy and nuclear power

Chashma C-1 to C-4 and K-2/K-3 at Karachi; future Kohala and Azad Pattan hydropower projects.

4. Defence

The JF-17 Thunder, transfer of military technology, naval vessels and air defence systems.

5. Agriculture, IT, health and education

Agricultural Corridor under CPEC; fibre optic cable, Huawei and ZTE; COVID-19 vaccines; scholarships for thousands of Pakistani students and Confucius Institutes.

6. Finance

Loans and grants for development; Chinese banks and companies are heavily involved in Pakistan's economy.

Critical view

The partnership has reduced energy shortages and improved infrastructure, but its full benefit depends on timely completion, security of Chinese workers and projects, repayment of loans, and Pakistan's ability to attract industry to the SEZs. Balanced relations with other powers are also needed.

Conclusion

China is Pakistan's most reliable friend. If managed well, projects like CPEC and Gwadar can make Pakistan a regional trade hub.

Introduction

The Central Asian States (Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan) became independent after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. They are resource-rich and landlocked, and share historical, cultural and religious ties with Pakistan.

1. Political and diplomatic ties

Pakistan has built strong relations with each state, emphasizing regional stability, counter-terrorism and economic integration, using platforms such as the SCO and ECO.

2. Energy cooperation

The cornerstone of the relationship: CASA-1000 to bring electricity from Central Asia and the TAPI gas pipeline to meet Pakistan's growing energy needs.

3. Trade and connectivity

Trade and investment are growing. Gwadar port and CPEC give the Central Asian States the shortest access to world markets, and Pakistan earns as a transit route.

4. Security

Joint efforts against terrorism, extremism and drug trafficking; regional peace depends on stabilizing Afghanistan.

5. Culture, education and defence

Scholarships and academic partnerships build people-to-people links; training programmes and intelligence sharing show commitment to mutual security.

Challenges

Instability in Afghanistan, lack of direct road and rail links, and financing problems have slowed projects such as TAPI and CASA-1000.

Conclusion

These relationships aim to integrate Central and South Asia economically and geopolitically, bringing peace, development and shared prosperity.

Introduction

The European Union is a political and economic union of 27 European countries set up after the two World Wars to promote peace and prosperity. Pakistan has close relations with several members.

1. Germany

Diplomatic ties since 1951. Germany is Pakistan's largest trading partner in the EU (Pakistani textiles and leather; German machinery and chemicals). It advocates Pakistan's GSP+ status; Siemens and BASF operate in Pakistan; the Goethe-Institut and German universities educate thousands of Pakistanis; help in disasters and counter-terrorism.

2. France

Ties since 1947. France imports Pakistani textiles, surgical instruments and food and exports machinery, automobiles and chemicals; Peugeot and Renault are present. Alliance Française and scholarships; help after the 2005 earthquake and 2010 floods; cooperation on counter-terrorism and Afghanistan.

3. Spain

Ties since 1950. Trade in textiles, machinery and sports goods; aid for rural development, health and 2010 flood relief; Instituto Cervantes and Spanish at NUML; tourism and renewable energy potential.

4. Italy

Ties since 1948. Trade in textiles, leather goods and machinery; Fiat and Eni invest in energy and infrastructure; support for girls' education; 20,607 Pakistani students admitted to Italian universities in 2023-24; counter-terrorism cooperation.

Conclusion

These relations bring Pakistan trade, investment, education and disaster help. Deeper cooperation in renewable energy, climate action and trade after Brexit is possible if Pakistan meets EU standards on human rights and governance.