Political developments in Pakistan

2.1Quaid-i-Azam as the first Governor General (1947 to 1948)Often examined

After independence Quaid-i-Azam (RA) became the first Governor General of Pakistan and Liaquat Ali Khan was elected the first Prime Minister. Quaid wanted Pakistan to be a democratic country based on social and economic justice, run according to the golden principles of Islam. He died on 11 September 1948, just thirteen months after Pakistan's birth.

Services of Quaid-i-Azam as Governor General

At the State Bank he said: "We must work our destiny in our own way and present to the world an economic system based on true Islamic concept of equality of manhood and social justice."

2.2Services of Liaquat Ali Khan (1947 to 1951)Often examined

After Quaid's death the responsibility to lead the country fell on Liaquat Ali Khan, the first Prime Minister. He was a trusted friend of Quaid, had been secretary general of the All India Muslim League for many years and Finance Minister in United India (interim government 1946), so he had administrative experience.

• Objectives Resolution (1949): he moved it and got it passed by the Constituent Assembly; it became the guiding principle of all future constitutions.
• Liaquat-Nehru Pact (1950): agreement with his Indian counterpart on the protection and problems of migrants and minorities; it brought relief to migrants.
• Economy and security: he toured the United States to seek aid; the US pledged assistance to overcome the economic crisis.
• He put the country on the path of progress and solidarity.

He was assassinated on 16 October 1951 while addressing a gathering in Rawalpindi (Company Bagh, now Liaquat Bagh). His last words were "May God protect Pakistan."

2.3Political instability (1951 to 1958)Often examined

After Liaquat's assassination Pakistan suffered political instability. The Muslim League split into factions. Because of the incompetence, selfishness and opportunism of politicians, the civil bureaucracy took over key positions. Leaders avoided general elections, delayed constitution making, failed to solve basic problems and lost public confidence.

Key features of the period

• The Governor General had the power to dismiss the prime minister, and used it.
• Dissolving the Constituent Assembly (1954) further delayed constitution making.
• East Pakistan, a homogeneous province with 56% of the population, versus the many units of West Pakistan: to balance it, all West Pakistan provinces were merged into One Unit (1955).
• Under the 1956 constitution the office of Governor General was replaced by President; Iskandar Mirza, the last Governor General, became the first President. The president's emergency power was repeatedly misused.

2.4Ayub Khan era (1958 to 1969)Often examined

After martial law on 7 October 1958, President Iskandar Mirza made General Muhammad Ayub Khan, Commander-in-Chief of the army, the Chief Martial Law Administrator. Mirza soon found himself powerless and plotted to arrest Ayub. Ayub forced Mirza to resign on 27 October 1958 and became President.

Ban on political activities and Basic Democracies

• Ayub believed political parties divided people and acted against national interest, and that politicians were responsible for the country's ills.
• He issued EBDO (Elective Bodies Disqualification Order) and PODO (Public Office Disqualification Order) to keep politicians out of politics.
• He believed people were illiterate and politically immature, so universal suffrage was dangerous. In 1959 he introduced the Basic Democracy System: people elected 80,000 BD members, who were the electoral college for the president and the national and provincial legislatures, and also worked as local bodies.
• He opposed the parliamentary system and gave the 1962 constitution, which set up a presidential form of government.

Economic policy

• Encouraged private investors to set up industries; economic growth was faster than in India and other neighbours.
• Land reforms: maximum holding fixed at 500 acres of irrigated and 1000 acres of unirrigated land.
• Modern machinery and tools in agriculture raised crop production rapidly.
• Built Warsak and Tarbela dams for energy and irrigation.
• The Second Five-Year Plan (1960 to 1965) was the most successful plan in Pakistan's history; targets were exceeded.

Presidential election (January 1965)

Miss Fatima Jinnah, Quaid-i-Azam's younger sister, contested against Ayub. The government ran a defamation campaign against her, which the public disliked. Ayub won because only 80,000 BD members could vote; with adult franchise she might have won. The election tarnished Ayub's reputation.

2.5War of 1965Often examined

Causes

Course of the war

• Public and army morale was very high; India could not take the areas it boasted it would capture within 24 hours.
• Lahore: Major Aziz Bhatti and his troops halted the enemy at the BRB Canal.
• Sialkot: the Indian attack failed; the biggest tank battle was fought near Chawinda, ending in Indian defeat.
• Pakistan Air Force shot down 75 Indian aircraft for the loss of 19 of its own.
• Pakistan occupied 650 km² of Indian territory and captured hundreds of Indian soldiers and officers.

Ceasefire and Tashkent Declaration

The UN passed a ceasefire resolution on 20 September; both accepted it on 22 September 1965. The USSR, neutral in the war, mediated and invited both leaders to Tashkent, where the Tashkent Declaration was signed in January 1966: troops withdrew to pre-war positions and prisoners of war were repatriated.

2.6Downfall of Ayub Khan (1969)Often examined

• People disliked the Tashkent Declaration because it did not settle Kashmir, the issue the war was fought over; it was believed Ayub lost a winning war at the negotiating table.
• Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Ayub's foreign minister who attended Tashkent, said the agreement was against Pakistan, resigned and started a movement against Ayub.
• The 1965 presidential election (restricted to 80,000 BD members and the campaign against Fatima Jinnah) had already damaged his image.
• Other political parties mobilised the masses to protest and demand his resignation.
• Under mounting public pressure Ayub resigned on 25 March 1969 and handed power to General Yahya Khan.

2.7Yahya Khan era (1969 to 1971) and the 1970 electionsOften examined

General Yahya Khan, Commander-in-Chief, imposed martial law but said he had no political ambitions; the army came only because law and order had broken down. He promised early elections and transfer of power.

Legal Framework Order (March 1970)

• 313 seats in the National Assembly.
• One Unit abolished.
• Universal adult franchise.
• Full freedom for election campaigns.

Elections of December 1970

The result showed that no party had national stature. Yahya called the Assembly to meet in Dhaka on 3 March 1971. Bhutto boycotted it and demanded prior agreement with Mujib on the constitution and power sharing.

Postponement and its consequences

• On 2 March 1971 Yahya postponed the Assembly session, citing the PPP boycott.
• The Awami League believed the regime would not hand over power and launched a civil disobedience movement.
• Law and order in East Pakistan collapsed; talks in Dhaka in mid-March lasted about ten days but failed, as Mujib refused to compromise on the Six Points, which the government now saw as a threat to Pakistan's unity.
• On 24 March 1971 Yahya ordered a military operation, a disastrous decision. General Tikka Khan restored order in cities, but the harsh operation alienated even sympathisers.
• It led to the 1971 war and the separation of East Pakistan.

2.8War of 1971 and the separation of East PakistanOften examined

Causes

• Political: failure to transfer power after the 1970 elections, postponement of the Assembly, Mujib's Six Points and the failure of all parties to reach a settlement.
• Economic grievances: Awami League claimed East Pakistan's earnings were used to develop West Pakistan.
• Military operation (24 March 1971) alienated the Bengali population.
• Indian interference: India wanted to avenge 1965; it openly supported Bengali separatists and gave them shelter. Most Awami League leaders fled to India and, with Indian support, formed Mukti Bahni, which India trained and financed to fight a guerrilla war.
• Indian invasion: when Mukti Bahni failed, India directly intervened on 21 November 1971 and declared open war on 3 December 1971.

Why Pakistan's army could not hold East Pakistan

• Supply lines with West Pakistan (about one thousand miles away) were cut; shortage of arms, ammunition and food.
• Less than 50,000 regular troops faced a hostile population and constant Mukti Bahni attacks.
• Indian army chief General Manekshaw said India had twenty times more troops; he praised the Pakistan army for fighting very gallantly so far from its base.

On 16 December 1971 General Niazi agreed to a ceasefire to prevent the annihilation of the army and civilian casualties. East Pakistan became Bangladesh.

2.9Zulfikar Ali Bhutto era (1971 to 1977)Often examined

After the fall of Dhaka, Yahya Khan stepped down under public and army pressure and handed power to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who vowed to build a new Pakistan. Bhutto had graduated from Oxford and had been foreign minister under Ayub (1963 to 1966).

Positive aspects

• Constitution of 1973: unlike earlier constitutions, it was passed unanimously by the assembly.
• Simla Agreement (1972) with India: both countries got back territories occupied in the war.
• Delhi Agreement (1974): ensured the return of prisoners of war.
• Independent foreign policy: since the US and Europe did nothing to save Pakistan from dismemberment, he repealed defence pacts with the US and left the Commonwealth.
• Nuclear programme: after India's nuclear test in 1974 he said Pakistan would "eat grass, even go hungry" but achieve nuclear capability; invited Dr Abdul Qadeer Khan and supported him. He is called the father of the nuclear programme.

Nationalisation

Bhutto had socialist leanings and was against the industrialist class. In 1972 he nationalised heavy industry, and later the banking and educational sectors. The steps were taken in good faith, but they had a bad impact on the economy: private investment stopped, efficiency and production fell, and state enterprises ran at a loss.

Black spots (negative aspects)

• He could not tolerate opponents.
• Dismissed the Balochistan government of Sardar Atta Ullah Khan Mengal, a political opponent.
• Ordered a military operation against the Marri and Mengal tribes, which fuelled a separatist movement in Balochistan.
• Jailed political opponents, calling them traitors.

Downfall (1977)

• Sure of a 2/3 majority, he called National Assembly elections on 7 March 1977.
• Nine parties formed the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA). The PPP won 156 of 200 seats; the PNA won only 36.
• The PNA alleged massive rigging and started country-wide protests that turned violent; partial martial law in Lahore, Multan and other cities failed to restore order.
• On 5 July 1977 army chief General Zia-ul-Haq dismissed Bhutto's government and imposed martial law.

2.10General Zia-ul-Haq's regime (1977 to 1988)Often examined

Zia said the army intervened because the country was on the verge of destruction, promised elections within ninety days, but did not keep his promise. He argued that Pakistan was founded in the name of Islam but had no Islamic system, and there was no accountability; so he would first enforce Islam and then hold elections. Bhutto was executed, supposedly in a fabricated murder case, on 4 April 1979.

Islamisation under Zia

• Hudood Ordinance: Islamic punishments for theft, adultery, fornication and consumption of alcohol.
• Federal Shariat Court (1980): to decide whether existing laws were Islamic.
• Media reforms: more Islamic programmes on radio and TV.
• Encouraged people to offer prayers regularly.
• Ulema appointed as junior commissioned officers in the army.

Critics say Zia was not serious about Islam and used it to legitimise and prolong his rule.

Soviet-Afghan war (1979 to 1989)

• At the end of 1979 USSR troops invaded Afghanistan to protect its communist regime; millions of Afghans fled to Pakistan, where Zia's government gave them food and shelter.
• Afghans resisted the Soviets and Pakistan fully supported them.
• The US, the rival superpower, promised Pakistan economic and military aid; with Pakistani and US help the Afghans resisted strongly.
• After ten years the USSR left Afghanistan in 1989 through the Geneva agreement.
• Zia's regime gained international recognition, but Pakistan paid a heavy price: the flow of arms and the growth of the drug trade.

Restoration of democracy and the 8th Amendment

• Zia said political parties were against Islam and avoided elections, but under pressure he held party-less elections in 1985; many believed he feared a PPP victory.
• The assembly elected Muhammad Khan Junejo, Zia's nominee, as Prime Minister, and demanded an end to martial law.
• Zia agreed on condition that parliament pass the 8th Amendment to the 1973 constitution. It did, and martial law was lifted on 30 December 1985.
• The 8th Amendment shifted many powers of the prime minister to the president and inserted Article 58(2)(b), letting the president dissolve the National Assembly and dismiss the prime minister at his discretion.
• Zia used it against Junejo in 1988 because Junejo took part in the Geneva talks without his consent. Before the promised elections, Zia died in an air crash on 17 August 1988.

2.11Democratic era (1988 to 1999)Often examined

After Zia's death Ghulam Ishaq Khan, Chairman Senate, became acting President and General Aslam Baig army chief. Elections were held in November 1988: the PPP won 93 seats and the nine-party Islami Jamhoori Ittehad (IJI) won 54. Benazir Bhutto became Prime Minister at 35: the first woman prime minister of the Muslim world and the youngest prime minister in the world.

This era saw political instability and economic crises, mainly because the president used Article 58(2)(b) again and again, so no government completed its tenure.

Nuclear tests (28 May 1998)

India made atomic explosions in May 1998. The US and European countries pressed Pakistan not to respond, but the government took a bold decision and conducted atomic explosions on 28 May 1998. Pakistan declared itself a nuclear power.

Kargil war (1999)

In May 1999 Mujahideen and Pakistani paramilitary troops occupied the Kargil heights near the Line of Control. India tried unsuccessfully to retake them, and both sides fought for about two months with heavy casualties. Fearing nuclear war, the US asked Nawaz Sharif to respect the LoC, and the troops withdrew in July 1999. Nawaz Sharif blamed army chief Pervez Musharraf for starting Kargil without his approval and removed him on 12 October 1999, appointing General Zia Uddin Butt. The army retaliated and toppled the government; Musharraf, then in Sri Lanka, returned and took charge.

2.12Musharraf era (1999 to 2008)Often examined

• Musharraf suspended the 1973 constitution and imposed emergency. Many countries did not recognise his government at first.
• He gained legitimacy after the 11 September 2001 attacks on New York and Washington. The US blamed Osama bin Laden and attacked Afghanistan (the War on Terror); Musharraf sided with the US and Pakistan became its close partner.
• 2002 elections: Nawaz Sharif and Benazir were not allowed to take part; the pro-Musharraf PML-Q came to power.
• He strengthened local bodies and devolved power to the grassroots.
• Terrorism surged and a very large number of people died in terrorist attacks.
• Operation against the Bugti and Marri tribes; after the killing of Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti, law and order in Balochistan worsened.

Events that led to his downfall

• Suspension of Chief Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry on 9 March 2007; lawyers and civil society launched a movement and the Supreme Court restored him.
• Emergency of 3 November 2007, in which he removed a number of superior court judges.
• The Lal Masjid operation, in which scores of people were killed.
• The assassination of Benazir Bhutto at Liaquat Bagh, Rawalpindi on 27 December 2007.
• After the PPP won the 2008 elections he resigned from the presidency (2008).

2.13PPP government (2008 to 2013): restoring democracyOften examined

The PPP won the 2008 elections. Yousaf Raza Gilani became Prime Minister, and after Musharraf resigned, Asif Ali Zardari was elected President.

Weaknesses: terrorist attacks increased; the economy stayed weak with high inflation and GDP growth of about 3% a year, one of the slowest rates in Pakistan's history. This was the first elected government to complete its full term and hand power to another elected government (2013).

2.14PML-N era (2013 to 2018)

• Nawaz Sharif became Prime Minister for the third time after the 2013 elections.
• CPEC (China-Pakistan Economic Corridor): a combination of development projects. In 2015 Nawaz Sharif signed 51 agreements and MoUs with China, valued at $56 billion (as printed in the book), to modernise roads, rail, energy and ports.
• Sit-in (August 2014): PTI (Imran Khan) and PAT (Tahir-ul-Qadri) held a sit-in in Islamabad for 126 days, hurting the government's performance.
• Army Public School, Peshawar (December 2014): terrorists martyred about 150 students and staff; the planners were killed or hanged.
• 2017: Nawaz Sharif was convicted by the court and Shahid Khaqan Abbasi became Prime Minister (the book notes that the Supreme Court later ruled the conviction unjust).
• A religious group led by Khadim Rizvi held a sit-in in Islamabad for many days.
• Despite this, the economy improved, inflation was under control and many development projects were completed.

2.15PTI government (2018 to 2022) and after

• After the July 2018 elections PTI was the largest party and Imran Khan, a cricketer turned politician, became Prime Minister, promising to end corruption.
• Challenges: balance of payments crisis and soaring inflation; the government turned to the IMF.
• COVID-19 (2020) was handled skilfully with the help of the military.
• Poor relations with the opposition, which formed the Pakistan Democratic Movement (PDM), accusing the government of poor governance, victimisation, economic mismanagement and weak foreign policy; even PTI's coalition partners left.
• In April 2022 the National Assembly passed a vote of no-confidence; Imran Khan was removed and Mian Muhammad Shahbaz Sharif became Prime Minister. Under the PDM the economy was precarious and inflation very high.
• An interim government under Anwaar-ul-Haq Kakar followed; it improved the economy and law and order somewhat.
• February 2024 elections: no party got a majority; a coalition government was formed with Shahbaz Sharif as Prime Minister and Asif Ali Zardari as President. It has controlled inflation somewhat, stabilised the currency, and raised its voice against atrocities in Kashmir and Gaza.

2.16Pakistan-India war of 2025

Pakistan-India wars at a glanceOften examined

Impacts of international wars on Pakistan (Soviet-Afghan war and War on Terror)

Timeline of rulers and key dates (1947 to 2025)

Key terms

Governor General

Head of state of Pakistan from 1947 to 1956; the office was replaced by the President under the 1956 constitution.

State Bank

The central bank of Pakistan, responsible for monetary policy and financial regulation; inaugurated on 1 July 1948.

Provincialism

Preferring the interests of a particular province over national unity.

Secretary General

The chief administrative officer of an organisation or political party.

Objectives Resolution

Resolution moved by Liaquat Ali Khan and passed by the Constituent Assembly (1949); the guiding principle of all later constitutions.

One Unit

The 1955 scheme that merged all provinces of West Pakistan into a single province; abolished by the LFO in 1970.

Martial law

Direct rule by the army with the constitution suspended or abrogated.

EBDO and PODO

Elective Bodies Disqualification Order and Public Office Disqualification Order, issued by Ayub Khan to keep politicians out of politics.

Basic Democracy System

Ayub Khan's 1959 system in which 80,000 elected BD members formed the electoral college and worked as local bodies.

Tashkent Declaration

Agreement signed in January 1966 under Soviet mediation after the 1965 war: withdrawal to pre-war positions and return of prisoners.

Legal Framework Order (LFO)

Yahya Khan's order of March 1970: 313 National Assembly seats, One Unit abolished, adult franchise.

Six Points

Awami League's 1970 manifesto demanding maximum provincial autonomy for East Pakistan.

Mukti Bahni

Armed group of Bengali separatists trained and financed by India in 1971.

Nationalisation

Taking private industries, banks or schools into state ownership, as Bhutto did from 1972.

Socialist

A person who believes that the means of production should be under the control of the state.

Simla Agreement

1972 agreement between Pakistan and India under which both returned territories occupied in the 1971 war.

PNA

Pakistan National Alliance: nine parties that opposed the PPP in the 1977 elections.

Hudood Ordinance

Zia's law prescribing Islamic punishments for theft, adultery, fornication and consumption of alcohol.

Federal Shariat Court

Court set up in 1980 to decide whether existing laws are Islamic.

8th Amendment

1985 amendment to the 1973 constitution that shifted powers from the prime minister to the president and added Article 58(2)(b).

Article 58(2)(b)

Clause that let the president dissolve the National Assembly and dismiss the prime minister at his discretion.

IJI

Islami Jamhoori Ittehad: a nine-party alliance formed in 1988 to contest elections against the Pakistan Peoples Party.

18th Amendment

April 2010 amendment that restored the 1973 constitution to its original form and increased provincial autonomy.

NFC Award

National Finance Commission award that divides federal revenue between the centre and provinces; the 7th award (2009) raised the provinces' share from 45% to 57.5%.

CPEC

China-Pakistan Economic Corridor: a set of development projects in roads, rail, energy and ports.

PDM

Pakistan Democratic Movement: alliance of opposition parties formed against the PTI government.

Vote of no-confidence

A vote in the National Assembly that removes the prime minister, as happened to Imran Khan in April 2022.

East Pakistan

The eastern wing of Pakistan, which separated in 1971 and became Bangladesh. (The book's glossary writes West Pakistan here, a misprint.)

Quaid-e-Azam

Great leader; the title of Muhammad Ali Jinnah.

FBISE 2026 questions

Questions from the FBISE HSSC-II 2026 (1st Annual) papers that belong to this unit, answered the way an examiner expects.

Exam focus

1. Contributions of Quaid-i-Azam as the first Governor General. (long)
   Book long question; 2026 Set A MCQ (Islamic democracy) and old-syllabus Q.2 (ii) on students came from it.
   Go to answer
2. Political instability after the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan (1951 to 1958). (long)
   Book long question; learn the table of seven prime ministers.
   Go to answer
3. Causes and consequences of the fall of Ayub Khan. (short)
   Asked in 2026 Set B Q.2 (i).
   Go to answer
4. Political and territorial factors behind the 1965 war. (long)
   Asked in 2026 Set B Q.4 OR (4+4).
   Go to answer
5. Causes of the 1971 war and India's role in the dismemberment of East Pakistan. (long)
   2026 Set D Q.4 OR and book long question 5.
   Go to answer
6. Bhutto era: nationalisation, foreign affairs and downfall. (long)
   Book long question and 2026 Set A Q.3 OR (8 marks).
   Go to answer
7. Zia-ul-Haq's Islamisation policies. (short)
   Book short question and 2026 Set D Q.2 (i).
   Go to answer
8. 8th Amendment and Article 58(2)(b): effect on president-prime minister balance and stability. (short)
   Book short question and 2026 Set A Q.2 (vi) OR.
   Go to answer
9. Steps to restore democracy after 2008 (18th Amendment, 7th NFC, judges). (short)
   Asked in 2026 Set A Q.2 (v).
   Go to answer
10. Role of Pakistan in the Soviet-Afghan war and impacts of the War on Terror. (long)
    Book long question; matches an SLO.
    Go to answer
11. Downfall of Pervez Musharraf. (short)
    Book short question with a clear list of events.
    Go to answer